Reliability of Automated Soldering vs. Hand Soldering

On occasion, we have had to place a skip in our SMT placement machine due to unavailability of a surface mount component. The intention is to build the circuit card assembly and then hand place and solder the missing components when available. I accept that there are times when you have to rework/touch-up/replace components, but these should be kept to a minimum. Can you comment on the potential differences in reliability for SMT machine placement followed by reflow soldering vs. hand placement followed by hand soldering of surface mount components?

P.K.

Experts Comments

There are three main sources of differences in reliability: solder joint behavior, component damage, and cleanliness. Hand soldering can involve tool tip temperatures of 400C and ramp rates of more than 100 C per second, and we need to consider the effect on the component. Multi-layer chip capacitors, particularly larger ones, are a high risk for damage during hand soldering, for instance. If you have guidelines for rework that address the acceptable processes for specific components, you can rely on these guidelines for the hand-installation of the components. The differences in solder joint reliability are hard to predict, and in most cases not your biggest concern, as long as you meet the applicable standards for soldering quality. Speaking of soldering quality, remember that your defect rate for hand-assembled product will almost always be higher than for automated assembly. The cleanliness risk is real, but as long as you have well-developed processes for hand soldering that include ensuring cleanliness of finished assemblies, you should be in good shape. In addition to the risk to the components being soldered, there are additional product risks, such as the risks of ESD or mechanical damage during the additional handling and processing necessary. It might not be easy, or even possible, to trace failures related to these additional risks back to the manual assembly process. In general, we try to avoid the "build short" practice as much as possible. The added cost of the manual labor and the reliability and quality risks are rarely worth it.

Fritz Byle Process Engineer Astronautics Fritz's career in electronics manufacturing has included diverse engineering roles including PWB fabrication, thick film print & fire, SMT and wave/selective solder process engineering, and electronics materials development and marketing. Fritz's educational background is in mechanical engineering with an emphasis on materials science. Design of Experiments (DoE) techniques have been an area of independent study. Fritz has published over a dozen papers at various industry conferences.

Hand-soldering of SMD's can be as reliable as an SMT reflow process but some care is required. The important thing to remember is to avoid excessive temperatures and contact times with the soldering tip. The area of concern is components which cannot tolerate fast ramp rates and are prone to cracking or delamination issues. Hand-soldering heats parts up very rapidly and within a second or two the temperature is well above the melting temperature of the alloy. Reflow soldering slowly increases temperature and reduces the effects of CTE mismatches of materials as well as thermal shock issues. It is important to be aware of the components ability to withstand higher temperatures and also ramp rate requirements as to avoid issues. The other point is to avoid heating the whole component but soldering the terminations only, this requires the use of the correct tip geometry.

Peter Biocca Senior Market Development Engineer Kester Mr. Biocca is a chemist with 24 years experience in soldering technologies. He has presented around the world in matters relating to process optimization and assembly. He has been working with lead-free for over 8 years. He is the author of many technical papers delivered globally.

A process is only as good as its repeatability. Hand soldering is not a repeatable process. Oxides on the soldering iron tip or on the solder, pressure applied, heated contact area, flux application and operator skill can all have a significant impact on the finished solder joint. One can have a very lovely solder joint on the outside but a bad joint on the inside. The interface between the bulk solder and the solder land or the soldered component lead can have a dramatic effect on the reliability of the finished solder joint.    Soldering results in an intermetallic compound (IMC) layer between the solder and the soldered object. The IMC layer in a SAC solder joint is composed of tin, silver and copper plus some of the solder wetted material.  So if the contact surface is copper, excess copper will be part of the IMC along with tin and silver.  If the solderable interface is nickel, nickel will be part of the IMC along with tin, copper and silver. IMCs are notably brittle and the thicker the IMC, the more brittle the solder joint.  IMC thickness depends on two factors: temperature and time and the higher the temperature or the longer the time of heating, the thicker the IMC.    The ultimate goal of any soldering operation is to minimize the IMC in addition to making smooth fillets of the proper configuration as per workmanship standard IPC-610. Hand soldering operations vary from station-to-station (equipment dependent) and operator-to-operator, therefore hand soldering is the least favorable of all assembly methods as it is not a reproducible process.  Hand placement of components into wet paste is discouraged as that operation often results in solder bridging/shorts or even displacement of adjacent parts. If only loose parts are available, these parts can be re-taped onto a used reel.  As an alternative, a matrix tray can be reused or created by simple machining and the loose parts nested in it for automated pick-up and placement. The ultimate goal is to minimize the number of soldering steps, only use reproducible processes (eliminate hand soldering) and minimize touches to the board to reduce board flexure and solder joint damage.  Avoid hand soldering!

Gary Freedman President Colab Engineering A thirty year veteran of electronics assembly with major OEMs including Digital Equipment Corp., Compaq and Hewlett-Packard. President of Colab Engineering, LLC; a consulting agency specializing in electronics manufacturing, root-cause analysis and manufacturing improvement. Holder of six U.S. process patents. Authored several sections and chapters on circuit assembly for industry handbooks. Wrote a treatise on laser soldering for Laser Institute of America's LIA Handbook of Laser Materials Processing. Diverse background includes significant stints and contributions in electrochemistry, photovoltaics, silicon crystal growth and laser processing prior to entering the world of PCAs. Member of SMTA. Member of the Technical Journal Committee of the Surface Mount Technology Association.

It is a well-known fact that hand soldering is a much less controlled process than the SMT process. If it handled correctly, hand soldering could introduce some quality issues. Here are some tips for hand soldering: The solder iron needs to be kept clean. The black crud built up from metal oxide and charred flux should be removed frequently. Choose the right solder wire. Incompatibility between the flux residue from solder paste and the flux used in the wire may cause issues such as white residue, low SIR or corrosion. Avoid prolonged contact time. An excessive heat input not only may cause damage to the PCB and components, but also may cause copper erosion related issues. Optimize tip temperature. A low tip temperature will cause cold solder joints, poor wetting, solder flags, icicles. If the tip temperature is too high, it may cause charring, grainy joints, de-wetting etc. Use right iron tip geometry. Use correct wire diameter, flux content and activity.

David Bao Director New Product Development Metallic Resources, Inc David Bao has more than fifteen years of experience in developing new solder paste, wave soldering fluxes and other SMT consumables. He currently serves as the Director of New Product Development at Metallic Resources Inc. He received a Ph.D. in Chemistry at Oklahoma State University.

This process is, of course, one to avoid. When it happens though, try to keep it to a minimum. Having SMT components soldered later in the process involves several risks: The temperature of the soldering iron tip is way higher than the reflow oven temperatures Use of flux in excess can lead to later issues. Once this operation is completed, a cleaning process will be required. A spot clean can be difficult and residues can be left on the assembly. Note: it is not recommended to use through your processes a mix of flux types. A water soluble process in SMT followed by some rework/repair done with RMA or no clean flux and then a wave soldering with water soluble flux again can get you headaches - white residue is one of them.  So if you do this, remember to use a good, clean tip, flux pen (recommended instead of bottle) and an operator that is very well trained for this type of operations. Component terminations damage, lifted pads and burnt boards are just few of the unwanted results coming out of this practice. To summarize, you can get a good, reliable solder connection as long as you can accept the potential risks, increased costs and high probability of scrap.

Georgian Simion Engineering and Operations Management Independent Consultant Georgian Simion is an independent consultant with 20+ years in electronics manufacturing engineering and operations. Contact me at georgiansimion@yahoo.com.

BGA Joint Voids - Accept or Reject?

Per IPC-610 acceptability standards, would you accept or reject this BGA solder joint? Is this level of voids something we should try hard to reduce?

I have heard that some level of voids within a BGA solder joint can actually improve reliability. Is this true? E.W. Experts Comments

Too many voids at the interface. Single voids in the bulk of the solder play little role in time to failure. Interfacial voiding can cause significant reductions.

Dr. Craig D. Hillman CEO & Managing Partner DfR Solutions Dr. Hillman's specialties include best practices in Design for Reliability, strategies for transitioning to Pb-free, supplier qualification, passive component technology and printed board failure mechanisms.

Reject the joint, the level of voids and where they are would look to be too high, I would x-ray a component that has not been reflowed to see if the balls are already failed.

Richard Boyle Global Product Champion Henkel Electronics Richard Boyle is a Global Product Champion at Henkel Electronics. He has over 25 years experience in the electronics assembly industry and is responsible for the global technical service of all of Henkel's solder materials.

This looks like excessive voiding. However, without a tool (like X-Ray voiding % check) that will give you a quantitative result, this is just an impression. Definitely something that you want to minimize. I do not know about increased reliability but this is obvious sign that the outgassing of the solder in the reflow process is not completed - there is a lot still trapped in the material. It is not uncommon to see voiding especially with lead-free solder that has more outgassing. Check your oven profile - usually a longer soak and a lower reflow temperature provides better results from the voids elimination point of view.

Georgian Simion Engineering and Operations Management Independent Consultant Georgian Simion is an independent consultant with 20+ years in electronics manufacturing engineering and operations. Contact me at georgiansimion@yahoo.com.

Let's first address the question of IPC-610 acceptability. The acceptability criterion for voiding in IPC-610 is currently <25% void area on transmission x-ray. This image is a cross section, which is not directly comparable to an x-ray, because only the voids at the plane of section are visible. When viewing a transmission x-ray image, all voids, regardless of where they lie in the joint, are visible. This image contains 16.7% void area at the plane of section, as determined using a "threshold" image transformation in Adobe Photoshop. That's high. Based on this, I'd expect an x-ray image of the joint to show at least 25% voiding. If (and I emphasize if) that is so, the joint would be  a reject per IPC-610 or J-STD-001. Now, let's look at the practical side. The voids in this joint are not localized at the component or PWB interface, but are evenly distributed throughout the joint. Current research seems to indicate that in this situation, the voiding is unlikely to have a negative effect on reliability. It is, however, a process indicator. Were this joint a product of my manufacturing process, I would be investigating the root cause(s) and optimizing the process to reduce the occurrence of the voids. For some additional reading on the matter, look at this article published by IPC, and consider reading the referenced paper.

Fritz Byle Process Engineer Astronautics Fritz's career in electronics manufacturing has included diverse engineering roles including PWB fabrication, thick film print & fire, SMT and wave/selective solder process engineering, and electronics materials development and marketing. Fritz's educational background is in mechanical engineering with an emphasis on materials science. Design of Experiments (DoE) techniques have been an area of independent study. Fritz has published over a dozen papers at various industry conferences.

If this was mine I would reject as it doesn't appear to have reflowed correctly nor does it appear to have paste printed on the pad at all. So my guess looking at the picture is Not hot enough No additional Paste printed on the pad to start with to aid wetting and reliable solder joint Hope it helps, I would be reflowing on a populated PCB at 245C, if you have a bare PCB then typically set up the profile to 255C to allow for component losses and density, so this should give you a safety window. Lastly use T4 powder for dense prints = less voids.

Greg York Technical Sales Manager BLT Circuit Services Ltd Greg York has twenty two years of service in Electronics industry. York has installed over 350 Lead Free Lines in Europe with Solder and flux systems as well as Technical Support on SMT lines and trouble shooting.

Here's my thoughts: That's the rattiest looking BGA  joint I've ever seen, and I've seen X-sections of hundreds of BGAs  as-received as well as as-assembled, of all types, from most suppliers, assemblers, and re-ballers. Something is seriously not right! I would "reject the joint", but that's not the whole story. I'd put a lot of effort upstream. That looks like a non-melting ball, from its shape (perfect sphere). Did it look like that as-received from the packager, before attach to the circuit board? I suspect it did.  If it didn't, if the attach-reflow caused these voids inside the ball, then maybe it' a melting ball, retaining its shape, and I'm baffled. I'm guessing there's not much a board assembler can do to, or for, a non-melting ball. I note that the top fillet, to the package land, is pretty skimpy. I'd try to get the BGA supplier to fatten that up, a bit. There's plenty of land real estate available. The fillet to the board land is also skimpy, plus it's seriously mis-registered. There is so little fillet, I cannot determine whether there are voids in the fillet. That's where attach-reflow conditions can help or hurt. Plus I'd make the PWB lands a bit bigger. Bottom line: this swiss-cheese situation is NOT mil-aero quality, by a long shot. It might be OK for a Fisher-Price talking mouse toy, but my judgment says NO GOOD for serious harsh-environment reliability. Another bottom line: if one grab sample shows something horrible, there's a very good statistical chance that other samples, for the same population, will be much worse. Just sayin'. I'd also say don't count on the concept that voids can be a good thing. I've seen no data nor analyses, but the hall-way consensus is that goodness might happen, a bit, but in only specific geometries and only responding to CTE-mismatch shear fatigue, plus voids don't behave nicely to make that happen .

Mike Green Design Engineering Lockheed Martin Space Systems Mike Green is co-chairman of the IPC Terms and Definitions Committee. He has been working with board design and manufacturing for 33 years.

Of all the voids I've looked at, none have shown this type of characteristics. I would ask how this solder ball was made and conduct an evaluation of the solderability of the material to verify the goodness of the paste and the flux.   Secondly, since this does not look like anything we've ever looked at, it would create some questions in my mind as to its goodness and reliability. Therefore since this is unknown, I would reject this condition, from the perspective that you don't have a homogeneous solder joints, and the joint interface is loaded with planar voids.

Leo Lambert Vice President, Technical Director EPTAC Corporation At EPTAC Corporation, Mr. Lambert oversees content of course offerings, IPC Certification programs and provides customers with expert consultation in electronics manufacturing, including RoHS/WEEE and lead free issues. Leo is also the IPC General Chairman for the Assembly/Joining Process Committee.

This is a difficult call on a generalization of voids, but I would remind you this is a thin section of the bigger ball and the amount of voids that can be seen on the ball to pad interface would concern me and suggest that the boards with these voids be temperature cycled to assess the joint integrity and determine if this amount of voiding has a negative or positive affect on the balls.

Terry Munson President/Senior Technical Consultant Foresite Mr. Munson, President and Founder of Foresite, has extensive electronics industry experience applying Ion Chromatography analytical techniques to a wide spectrum of manufacturing applications.

What you have heard about voids increasing mechanical reliability in BGA solder joints is not necessarily untrue. I am familiar with research conducted by Glen Dody of Motorola in the 90's that found voids in the bulk solder would tend to terminate cracks that were propagating. In the section you have shown I would be concerned about the amount of voiding at the inter-metallic compound (IMC) interface. While voids in the bulk solder might stop a crack, the IMC is the weakest mechanical location in the solder joint. Voids along this interface will tend to promote propagation as a separation occurs at the IMC. I would work to reduce voiding in your process.

Stephen Schoppe President Process Sciences, Inc. Stephen Schoppe is President of Process Sciences, Inc., and has 19 years experience providing SMT services to electronics manufacturers. Stephen provides consulting to several Fortune 500 clients on solder and SMT processes, and is a frequent guest speaker at SMT industry events.

This BGA definitely has too much voiding and needs to be corrected. Whenever this much voiding forms in a single BGA, it is an indication of a poor solder joint formation. This could be due to either weak flux activity or excessive solder powder oxidation. Mixing two different solder powders also causes this kind of phenomenon.

David Bao Director New Product Development Metallic Resources, Inc David Bao has more than fifteen years of experience in developing new solder paste, wave soldering fluxes and other SMT consumables. He currently serves as the Director of New Product Development at Metallic Resources Inc. He received a Ph.D. in Chemistry at Oklahoma State University.

For specific BGA void acceptability recommend to refer IPC 7095 and incorporate same in Shop floor X-ray machine. This std has specific criteria based on size of void and numbers to Pass or Fail. As per picture it looks not meeting IPC 7095 void criteria or having very low reliability BGA Balls.   Beyond that, can see the ball has not being melted sufficiently and collapsed with a BGA placement shift.

Subrat Prajapati Supplier Quality Leader Ge Healthcare Subrat has 10 year of extensive experience in PCB assembly process optimizing for quality, process includes screen printing, wave, reflow. He has a copyright in stencil design published in Apex Expo2010 at Las Vegas US.

Reader Comment As Mike Green noted in his point 5, there seems to be something seriously strange with the initial solder ball. Have you considered this might be a "counterfeit part?" And as noted by others, it appears there was a very low amount of solder paste available to make good joint fillets (both at the PCB & Component side). Along with the previously noted lack of registration and small PCB pad size. I would also be concerned about such large "notch voids" open to the outer surface of the ball. These would be "stress concentration points" under shear forces and could become crack initiation sites. I am also concerned about the relatively high level of voids along the PCB side interface, especially if this was an ENIG surface finish with it's much weaker and brittle Tin/Nickel IMC interface vs a Tin/Copper based IMC interface (when using HASL, Pb-HASL, ImSn, ImAg or OSP). In regards to the question of some level of voids leading to higher reliability, there is indeed some level of reasonable and potentially related scientific extrapolated truth to a possible answer. There have been test results in the past on IGBT Chip to DBC solder joints that clearly showed that such joints, with a evenly distributed pattern of small voids, had noticeably better power cycle life. The reasonable theory being that the small voids allowed an increased level of, shall we say "flexibility", in the joint and absorbed some of the shear strain caused by the CTE mismatch of the materials during the Power cycle induced temp cycling. Therefore, I believe it would be very reasonable to postulate that an evenly distributed array of small voids in a BGA Solder ball would also result in greater flexibility of the ball, and thus result in greater temp cycling reliability (in say an IPC-9701 2nd level interconnect test regime). Taller balls and solder columns have the same positive result due to increased flexibility (as does the Z-axis thickness of any solder joint).   The challenge/problem, of course, is trying to get such evenly distributed and controlled small size voids in a Solder ball (and without getting to many voids at the interface), and preferably with none of the voids exposed on the outside surface. Basically a "closed cell foam solder ball with a full skin". Something interesting to think about. Steven McLaughlin, ABB, Switzerland

http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/86861.shtml

BGA Replacement Limit

How many times can a BGA component be replaced at the same location on the same PCB and retain reliability? We are using BGA components with polymer balls on gold plated multilayer PCB's that are 2 millimeters thick.
M.B.G.

Experts Comments

1. A lot of our customers will count the thermal cycles of the PCB. And based on the PCB material integrity, they determine at what point the PCB become questionable. a. Placing and soldering a BGA equates one cycle. b. Removing the BGA is the second cycle c. Cleaning the site of is the third cycle. d. Soldering a NEW BGA is cycle #4 So the question becomes, do you want to go thru these cycles again? Is the thermal cycle for EACH step consistent? The answers may not be a simple 'Yes" or "No", and may include data that supports reliability test data that provides proof that a PCB can withstand X amount of thermal cycles before the material degrades and becomes a liability. 2. Recycling a BGA (reballing) is similar to above. BGA manufactures will normally specify how many times a component can be thermally cycled before the chip within the BGA package is no longer functional, or questionable. Although the solder is a key aspect of successfully soldering a component multiple times, that is only one of three critical areas that need to be considered. The PCB and the component themselves need to be fully understood and should be tested throughout the process in deciding how many times a rework cycle can and should be used.

Neil O'Brien Sales Director Finetech Neil O'Brien has worked in the field of electronic manufacturing equipment for over fifteen years and is currently Sales Director for Finetech, a manufacturer of precision rework systems and die bonders.

There is no hard industry rule but the rule of thumb for most companies is no more than 5 to 6 thermal cycles at reflow. The adheasive system for the board pads continues to breakdown after 3 cycles and the bga part itself will also start to weaken at 3 cycles so most companies err on the cautious side and only replace twice at the same location after the initial build which is normally 2 thermal cycles for top and bottomside reflow thermal cycles. Then one would have a remove and replace which is 2 more thermal cycles and then possibly another remove and replace which is 2 more for a total of 6 cycles. High reliability hardware normally does not like seeing more than 4. But again this normally customer generated and it differs between companies and the degree of long term reliabity expected. Based on the information given this is a general comment for the number of rework cycles.

Mark McMeen VP Engineering Services STI Electronics Inc. Mark T. McMeen is STI Electronics Inc.ʼs Vice President of Engineering Services. He oversees the daily operations of the Engineering Services division of STI. He has over 18 years experience in the manufacturing and engineering of PCBs.

It depends on many factors; leaded solder will provide you with additional cycles where a lead-free application will reduce the number of possible cycles. If you are adding solder paste to the operation it will help with the reliability of the finished product. Testing and evaluation of your particular application must be performed to confirm the maximum number of cycles for your particular PCB.

Edward Zamborsky Regional Sales Manager OK International Inc. Mr. Zamborsky serves as one of OK's technology advisers to the Product Development group. Ed has authored articles and papers on topics such as; Low Volume SMT Assembly, Solder Fume Extraction, SMT Rework, BGA Rework, Lead Free Hand Soldering, Lead Free Visual Inspection and Lead Free Array Rework.

I totally agree with Mark McMeens' assertion below that often manufacturers only get as few as two attempts to get it right, but this begs a bigger question, "Why am I reworking my BGAs in the first place?" I believe the answer more often than not has to do with a poor profile. This year I have seen tremendous interest in this area as manufacturers continue to struggle with micro BGA on more complex boards, which is even further challenging for CMs who get 50 boards from a customer who wants 50 boards back. No drilling holes for thermocouple readings under the BGA! I added some additional comments on this subject along with useful information from TC attachment (non destructive) to how to profile BGAs without destroying other more heat sensitive components. http://profilingguru.com/reflow/define/why-are-you-replacing-bgas/

Brian O'Leary Global Account Manager Indium Corporation Mr. O'Leary is the Global Account Manager for Indium. He has and extensive global network of contacts in the electronics industry with expertise in SMT equipment and processes.

Reader Comment All depend of the board finished. We are using AgIm and ENIG-Au/Ni we reworked Ceramic BGA's three times on AgIm boards and five times on ENIG-Au/Ni finished. The BGA removal profile is crucial in order to not damage or burn the PCB lands. Sergio Ilescas Hernandez, Arris Group de Mexico

Reader Comment We have tried the BGA replacement two to three times on the same PCB. And we found it reliable. The only thing that is to be considered to have proper removal of BGA in order not to damage the PCB solder pads. Maninder Singh, Deltron (A Division of CDIL), India

Reader Comment At my company we qualify PCB suppliers in part based on HATS or IST via reliability results. We specify 6 preconditioning cycles to simulate assembly processes. Our reliability test results, then, are only valid up to 6 thermal cycles. As Mr. O'Brien points out, a board with one reflow cycle has margin for only one BGA replacement. So we limit our assembly suppliers to 6 thermal cycles at any one site, but only one BGA replacement. Jimmie King, GE Healthcare

http://www.circuitnet.com/experts/55814.shtml

SMT - 3D Printing

SMT - 3D Printing from マルセロ 白井

SMT - Process Control in Thermal Profiling

SMT - Process Control in Thermal Profiling from マルセロ 白井

SMT - Intermittent BGA Test Problems

SMT - Intermittent BGA Test Problems from マルセロ 白井

SMT - Rework on the PTH

SMT - Rework on the PTH from マルセロ 白井

FMEA - Failure Mode and Effects Analysis

FMEA - Failure Mode and Effects Analysis from マルセロ 白井

Sistema de Produção Puxada

Sistema de Produção Puxada from マルセロ 白井

USB Digital Accelerometer

USB Digital Accelerometer Supported by Various Leading Commercial Software Vendors

December 30, 2014

Introduced at Sensors Expo earlier this year, the Digiducer^TM Piezoelectric USB Digital Accelerometer is rapidly gaining acceptance in both industrial and test markets.

There are already more than a dozen commercially available software packages that communicate directly with the Digiducer^TM Model 333D01.

The device is finding utility in applications from balancing to electric motor monitoring to vehicle vibration. Value-added reseller GTI Predictive Technology has incorporated the product with its app, VibeRMS, and an Apple® iPad mini^TM for an entry-level vibration monitoring system. The ability to bring high dynamic range vibration signals to smartphones and tablets is simplifying and broadening both predictive maintenance and process improvement uses of sound and vibration.

For general vibration test users, price points for iOS and PC general DAQ/FFT software can be found under $100, with some as low as $4.99 or shareware priced. Power users will be pleased to see the Digiducer product is also supported by traditional software packages such as Vibrant Technology’s ME’ScopeVES^TM and MechaniCom.

Custom application developers have noted that the Piezoelectric USB Digital Accelerometer’s simplified, yet high-fidelity (24-bit) built-in data acquisition communicates seamlessly with both iOS and PC audio drivers. Custom applications have been developed in environments as varied as National Instruments LabView, The MathWorks® MATLAB and other programming languages.

For more information on commercially available software packages, value-added resellers and developer support, please visit Digiducer.com.

About Digiducer, Inc.
Digiducer, Inc. was formed to couple a long lineage of quality dynamic sound and vibration sensing with the simplicity of the internet era. Simplifications such as plug-and-play, audio driver connectivity and the purchasing ease of eCommerce are part of our mission. The Digiducer Team includes seasoned designers of piezoelectric sensors, digital data acquisition, and embedded systems markets, along with experts in sound and vibration application support. Visit our website www.digiducer.com for in-depth product information and support.

 

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